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Photo by Jim Parrish
Photo Copyright Jim Parrish
Northern Waterthrush
Parkesia noveboracensis
NatureServe conservation status
Global (G-rank): G5
State (S-rank): SNA
External links
General information
The northern waterthrush, Seiurus noveboracensis, breeds in wooded swamps and bogs in the forests of Canada, Alaska, the northeastern United States, and parts of the northern United States. It winters in tropical mangroves in southern Mexico, Central and South America, and parts of the West Indies. On rare occasions, the northern waterthrush may be seen near water in Utah during its migration.
Northern waterthrushes normally forage for food along the ground or in shallow water. Their diet consists of adult and larval insects, snails, and clams. Males and females pair off as soon as females reach the breeding grounds. The male shows her to a chosen area, and the female selects the actual nest location. She usually selects a site near water, hidden in a large mass of roots or under an overhanging bank. A cup-shaped nest is constructed using moss and leaves, and is lined with grass and animal hair. The female incubates four eggs for twelve days. The young leave the nest after nine days, but both parents continue feeding them for another month, at which time the young are independent.
Species range
BREEDING: western and north-central Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie to Labrador and Newfoundland, south to southeastern British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, North Dakota, Great Lakes, eastern West Virginia, northwestern Virginia, and Massachusetts (Eaton 1995, AOU 1998). NON-BREEDING: southern Baja California, southern Sinaloa, San Luis Potosi, northern Veracruz, and southern Florida south through Mexico (including Yucatan peninsula), throughout Central America to Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, northern Brazil, northeastern Peru, and Surinam; also abundant throughout the West Indies (Raffaele 1983, Pashley 1988a, Pashley 1988b, Pashley and Hamilton 1990, Eaton 1995).
Migration
A neotropical migrant, traveling long distances nocturnally (Winkler et al. 1992). Migrates annually between breeding grounds in North America and wintering areas in West Indies and Central and South America, flying across or around Gulf of Mexico; a trans-gulf, circum-gulf, and trans-Caribbean migrant (Eaton 1995). Cannot carry enough fat to complete spring or fall migrations in one direct flight (est. 2,500 km) and must stop and eat (Winkler et al. 1992); migratory stopover habitat is especially important to this species. Present in South America mainly September-April (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Arrives in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands in September, present through April (Raffaele 1983). Arrives in Costa Rica mid- to late-August, departs by mid-May; often abundant in September (Stiles and Skutch 1989).
Habitat
BREEDING: Breeds in cool, wooded swamps, ponds and slow-moving rivers; thickets of bogs, and rivers bordered with willow (SALIX) and alder (ALNUS, Godfrey 1986, Peck and James 1987). Regional habitats differ slightly. Throughout Canada and Alaska, nests primarily in spruce (PICEA) bogs, along alder-and willow-bordered rivers; also along lakes, swamps, and wet woodlands (Godfrey 1986). However, on islands off Newfoundland, known to nest in areas without standing water and where understory is less dense than on mainland (Vassollo et al.1982). In New York state, breeds in hardwood swamps dominated by Red Maple (ACER RUBRUM) on the Great Lakes Plain, in Eastern Hemlock (TSUGA CANADENSIS)-northern hardwood swamps on the Allegheny Plateau, and in spruce-tamarack (LARIX)-balsam (ABIES) swamp valleys and uplands of the Adirondacks and Tug Hill Plateau (Eaton 1988). In Pennsylvania, found in RHODODENDRON swamps and a variety of wooded wetland types (Gross 1992). In Massachusetts, nests in locally in red maple swamps and white cedar and red maple swamps (Viet and Petersen 1993). In West Virginia, nests along rhododendron-bordered mountain streams, in spruce swamps and northern mixed forest to beech (FAGUS)-maple (ACER) forest (Brooks 1944). Where sympatric with Louisiana Waterthrush, nests in areas with more forbs and ferns, with significantly more moss cover, hummocks, and conifers and with a higher density of shrubs; significantly more Eastern Hemlock and alder in Northern Waterthrush territories (Craig 1985). NONBREEDING: Found mainly in damp tropical lowland forest, edges of pools and streams, mainly below 1,500 m. Mangroves (RHIZOPHORA, AVICENNIA, LABUNCULARIA) provide key habitat throughout much of range (Stotz et al. 1996, Bond 1971, Wetmore et al. 1984, Binford 1989, Lefebvre et al. 1992, Wunderle and Waide 1993). In Costa Rica, also found in open second growth or at wet spots in trails or roads (Stiles and Skutch 1989 Blake and Loiselle 1992). In northeast Nicaragua, in rain forest adjacent to pine habitat (Howell 1971). Tends to avoid disturbance, but may do well in second-growth tropical forest, edges, or woodlots (Ehrlich, et al. 1988). Throughout its winter range found mainly below 1500 m (Curson et al. 1994). Highest recorded elevation in Columbia 3000m (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Costa Rica, ranges from lowlands to 1500 m, rarely higher, on both slopes, often extremely abundant in September along Caribbean coast; most numerous in Caribbean lowland and mangroves along the Pacific coast (Stiles and Skutch 1989). In Belize, most numerous in mangroves and gallery forest (Eaton 1995); occurs sparingly in cropland of cacao, rice, and citrus fruits (Robbins et al. 1992). In the West Indies, most often near the border of standing water, primarily saline and brackish, in or near mangroves and coastal scrub forest (Raffaele et al. 1998). MIGRATION: Prefers damp woodlands with standing water, thick cover along streams, in marshes, and by stagnant pools, but is also found on lawns and in hedgerows and thickets (Winkler et al. 1992).
Food habits
On breeding grounds, eats various small invertebrates, primarily from muddy ground but also wades in shallow pools, gleans from foliage or soggy fallen leaves, and occasionally catches flying insects (Terres 1980, Lack 1976, Rappole and Warner 1980, Craig 1984). Takes larval and adult insects, spiders and snails. In the north, where associated with moving water, probably feeds on stoneflies (Plecoptera). After leaf emergence in spring, feeds extensively on Lepidoptera larvae (Eaton 1957, Craig 1987, Eaton 1995) In S. Carolina, known to have taken small minnows (Wayne 1910). On non-breeding grounds, forages in mangroves, perching on fallen trees or pneumatophores, picking prey from substrates or near water surface, up to 3 m from ground but usually below 1 m (Lefebvre et al. 1992). Diet includes beetles, ants (Hymenoptera), flies, insect larvae, snails and decapod crustaceans found at water surface, on the ground, on fallen trees, or occasionally in low foliage. Typically forages alone, but sometimes in small groups probably only during migration when birds are immediately concerned with feeding (Schwartz 1964). In Cuba, small snails, small clams (Pelecypodia), snout beetles (Rhynchophora), small spiders and ants (Eaton 1995). Feeds on a greater variety of prey during migration.
Ecology
Territorial throughout the year. Thought to defend non-breeding foraging areas against intraspecific intrusion, occasionally violently. Mean territory size on breeding grounds from 0.5-1.0 ha by location and is similar on wintering grounds (Eaton 1995, Curson et al. 1994). Some indication that individuals may show changing preferences for habitat throughout non-breeding season despite other studies showing strong winter territoriality. Lefebvre et al. (1994) considered this species to be non-territorial in winter in northeastern Venezuela mangroves. Arrivals in Venezuela near end of rainy season occupy higher slopes, descending to humid lowlands in the dry season (Schwartz 1964). In northern Colombia, inhabits thornscrub in October but disappears in November as leaves wilt; unrecorded there in spring (Russell 1980). In addition, birds occupying coastal mangroves in Panama may migrate between habitat types mid-winter in response to prey availability. Abundance of Panamanian birds followed patterns of arthropod abundance and increased rainfall; species was more abundant in Pacific mangrove forests during the first part of the wintering period and more abundant in the Caribbean mangroves during the second part of the wintering season when rainfall and arthropod prey items increase there (Lefebvre and Poulin 1996).
Reproductive characteristics
Essentially monogamous. Pair bond maintained from shortly after male arrives to 3-4 days after successful fledging. Favors nest sites in cavities of root systems of wind-blown trees in wooded swamps, or on sides of fern clumps or under cover on the banks of lakes or rivers. Nest typically hidden from above (Eaton 1995, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Nest a bowl of moss and liverwort gametophytes with a few leaves on the outside, lined with grass stems, twigs or pine needles, moss sporophytes or small rootlets and hair. May have an entranceway of leaves (Eaton 1995, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Clutch size four to five eggs, sometimes three to six. Distinctly smaller than cowbird eggs. Female incubates and will lure potential predators away from nest. (Eaton 1995). Eggs are laid in late May-June. Young are altricial, brooded by female until day five. Both parents feed young. Departure from nest at day nine. Young unable to fly and hide for 2-3 days under dense vegetation (Baicich and Harrison 1997). Parents split brood for feeding. One brood per season (Eaton 1995).
Threats or limiting factors
HABITAT LOSS: Habitat appears relatively secure throughout Canada, the majority of breeding range, but is increasingly threatened on wintering grounds. As human populations in the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America are increasing, felling of mangrove forests will increase in response to demands for fuel, food and space (Eaton 1995). Current estimates show that only 21% of land area remains forested (Wunderle and Waide 1994). The mangroves of Ecuador and Peru have been decimated for fuel and paper making and more recently for shrimp culture impoundments. Mangroves of Central America and the Caribbean also are threatened by such activities (Terborgh 1989). Throughout range, drainage of swamps for agriculture and wetlands development into ponds or lakes also destroy and degrade habitat on breeding and non-breeding grounds (Eaton 1988, Eaton 1995, Hull 1991, Gross 1992). Forest fragmentation and activities that cause reductions in forest canopy cover or negatively impact aquatic insect communities are also a threat (Brown 1999). PESTICIDES AND CONTAMINANTS: Wetlands frequently concentrate environmental contaminants and pesticides, putting species that use these habitats at high potential risk for mortality from ingestion (Rappole et al. 1983). In addition, northern forests on breeding grounds are often sprayed to control spruce budworm outbreaks. This could affect Northern Waterthrush populations by reducing insect prey base and directly killing birds (Eaton 1995). Potential impacts to prey base due to acid precipitation caused by powerplants in some regions. COLLISIONS: One record of a large kill due to collision with TV towers where 517 birds were killed (Robbins 1991). HURRICANES: Hurricanes may reduce local wintering populations of neotropical migrants in the West Indies (Holmes 1994; J. Confer and R. Holmes, unpubl. data). PREDATION: Young and eggs may experience high predation rates (Eaton 1957). PARASITISM: Relatively free of parasitism by the Brown-headed Cowbird (MOLOTHRUS ATER) compared with the Louisiana Waterthrush and other North American warblers (Eaton 1995).
References
- Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The birder’s handbook[:] a field guide to the natural history of North American birds. Simon & Schuster, New York. xxx + 785 pp.
- Behle, W. H., Sorensen, E. D. and C. M. White. 1985. Utah birds: a revised checklist. Utah Museum of Natural History, Occasional Publication No. 4. Salt Lake City, UT.
- Eaton, S. W. 1995. Northern Waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis). Birds of North America 182.
